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Description
Is Altruism an Illusion?

“What appears to be altruistic is only an illusion. Moral acts are ultimately motivated by self interest”.

When one states that what appears to be altruistic is purely illusive and moral acts are ultimately motivated by self interest, a multiplicity of varying implications are provoked. Altruism can be defined as the principle or practice of magnanimous concern for or dedication to the wellbeing and benefit of others. This classification is relatively general and leads to the discussion of many obscure conceptualisations and rationalisations. There are several sub-topics which serve as components to the subject matter of altruism and all its intricacies and opacities.  Ethics and ethical reasoning are noteworthy issues to examine and analyse in relation to the general theme of altruism. Analysing this doctrine from an ethical point of view is vital in determining if the above statement regarding the illusiveness of altruistic acts is factual, even if people may find they uncover somewhat ambiguous results. The psychology of altruism is also a very effective means of developing a deeper and more involved understanding of how it occurs within human psyches and compels them into altruistic behaviour. Sociology is a fundamental aspect of altruism, which is apparent from the definition, as it involves concern and empathy for others. Another definition of the word describes animal behaviour which may be to its disadvantage but benefits others of its kind. This creates comparison between animal and human variations of altruism and whether there is a difference in how the concept applies to them. The opposite of altruism is egoism, the partiality to valuing everything only within the orientation of one's personal interests. It is useful to draw a comparison between each of the two opposing ideologies to establish which is illusive and which is real. Whether countervailing, non-selfish impulses exist is questionable because all individuals possess an overwhelming amount of self interest.

Ethically, altruism is often perceived as a virtue which is genuine, epitomizing human empathy, compassion and selflessness. It claims that ‘an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone except the agent’. However, many believe that this action cannot be selflessly performed by anyone. To question the authenticity of altruism and claim it is not a true component of reality both defies and abides by traditional ethical laws. A human mind generally has the tendency to process information and apply ethical reasoning to this information accordingly. It is a widely accepted notion that the altruistic ideal is ethically correct but, though many may attempt to actualise this moral pinnacle, is as an unattainable asset to have. Altruism is not a requirement in determining what is ethically right or wrong, as humans are actually led to making these moral decisions through their own selfish partialities. Altruism, if in existence, lies only in people intentions, not their ethics or morals, which are frequently created by self-interest.

Altruism is a component of psychology and can be psychologically assessed. An effective means of assessing altruism from a psychological point of view is through analysing Abraham Mallow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’, which was designed for this purpose. Maslow used a pyramidal ladder to classify the five constituents of his theory. The five main constituents which lead to further explanation are human potential, purpose/esteem, belonging, security and, most basically, physical needs. One might assume that the pinnacle of the ladder, human potential, is where altruism can be reached. Self actualisation, development of self and personal creative potential is what characterizes this psychological apex. Self actualisation is the process of realizing one’s own potentialities and was initially introduced by Kurt Goldstein. This could induce altruistic behaviour by creating awareness of others in the awareness and acceptance of oneself. Purpose or esteem is recognised as ‘significant activity’. This means that once one has found a guiding purpose they can constructively perform significant altruistic activity. ‘Unconditional love’ is what creates belonging, the centre of the hierarchy. Unconditional love would be a truly great motivator of altruism, though some believe any acts motivated by this are still motivated by self interest because someone would be hurt if damage were inflicted upon an entity or identity for which they had unconditional love. Security, defined by the ‘sense that needs will be met tomorrow’ is the second most basic drive of the hierarchy of needs. It proves that in order to reach the level needed to be truly altruistic, egoistic drives must be experienced and surpassed. Physical needs, consisting of food, water, clothing and shelter, as the most fundamental of human requirements, are the base of Maslow’s hierarchy, because they must be both fulfilled and emotionally transcended for one to not be hindered by them. Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs is a concise one, giving an explanation of how psychological achievements can be met. However, its links with altruism are vague and indecisive.

Individuals and their relation to society are important factors in the theme of altruism. Altruism is an important sociological object that can be looked for and inspected in societal situations. The word ‘altruism’ was in fact originally coined by August Comte in the first volume of his ‘Système de politique positive’. Comte claimed that ‘the new cerebral science of phrenology proved that altruistic sentiments were innate’. As a sociologist, he also associated altruism closely with sociology. Two other significant pioneers in the field of sociological altruism were Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim. Durkheim made a distinction between egoistic, altruistic and anomic types of suicide when he studied the subject in 1897. Egoistic suicide was the most frequent in Western nations because, according to Durkheim, of the encouragement of individuality. Conversely, altruistic suicide was widespread in primitive communities, who had an especial sense of communal obligation. Sociology is closely related to altruism, as the coinage was invented by a sociologist. It is necessary to study sociology to truly understand the validity of altruism.

Ethology is the zoological study of animal behaviour and instincts. The ethological definition of altruism involves animal conduct which may be to its disadvantage but is advantageous to others of its kind. Genetically programmed behaviours imply that conduct is controlled by survival instincts. This suggests that selfless endeavours carried out by animals are intrinsically programmed by heredity; therefore altruism is instinctive but not identified by the organism as such. Following a hereditary mode of self-sacrificing conduct is very valid proof of the existence of unselfish motives. Animals, unlike humans, are dependant upon their genetic disposition and thus more prone to automatic altruistic deeds. Evolutionary biology greatly contributes to ethology. ‘Complex adaptive systems are learning machines made up of numerous components.’  This quote stresses the adaptiveness of organisms and how they react and adjust to their exterior environment. Selfishness is also hereditary, being necessary for these adaptations and the survival and evolvement of a species. Both altruism and egoism are present within the instincts of an animal and are both an indispensable method of ensuring survival and advancement.

Egoism is the exact opposite of altruism, the theory that regards self-interest as the foundation of morality and the state of one’s own interest being a supreme guiding principle of action, also definable as systematic selfishness. Egoists believe altruistic tendencies in humans don’t exist, so they use egoism to create their own set of ethical laws or abide by traditional laws from an egoistic standpoint. An egoist might take Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to support egoistic claims. They might believe that human potential/self actualisation, purpose/esteem, belonging, security and physical needs are inherently selfish objectives to which to aspire but this belief is ultimately fraudulent. All of these objectives, especially human potential, can lead to and are part of true altruism. To most egoists, all suicides would be classified as egoistic, because their beliefs hinge on the idea that all actions are carried out to benefit oneself in some way.  They would take the collective suicides performed among primitive peoples to have been done because of the individuals’ own wants. Ethology supports egoism in that some of its aspects are based upon survival, which requires a certain degree of selfishness. However, as already mentioned, genetic programming has inherently constructed altruistic motivations within an organism’s psyche. Egoism is a more palpable initiative than altruism and this generally provokes the conception that it exists instead of altruism. This idea is erroneous. Egoism proves that altruism exists through its own existence, as it must have an opposite that subsists and conflicts with it.

Altruism may seem to be a non-existent component of reality when situations involving the theme are examined. However, this is due to the over-analytical nature of humans, which clouds their judgement of this issue. Humans have tried to attain altruism through ethical reasoning, psychological improvement and sociological means. Phrenological and ethological reasoning can deduce that altruism is real through the indication of genetically programmed behaviours, whilst egoism attests that a conflicting principle must subsist with it. Countervailing, non-selfish impulses do exist but are not directly ostensible to the human acuity.

Bibliography:

London-oratory.org. Dwaine Martin. London Oratory. 12 April 2007- www.london-oratory.org/philosophy/philosophies/ETHICS/normative/teleological/body_teleogical.html

Psychology & Altruism. Robin Upton. Altruists International. 3 Feb. 2007- www.altruists.org/ideas/psycho…

Comte and Sociology. Various. Science Encyclopaedia. 3 Feb. 2007- science.jrank.org/pages/8249/A…

Introduction to Ethology (The Zoological Study of Animal Behaviour). Unknown. Bellarmine College. 3 Feb. 2007- cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Eth…

Biology, Evolution and the Global Brain. Howard Bloom. Heise-Online. 4 Feb 2007- www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/2/2…

Description
Is Altruism an Illusion?

“What appears to be altruistic is only an illusion. Moral acts are ultimately motivated by self interest”.

When one states that what appears to be altruistic is purely illusive and moral acts are ultimately motivated by self interest, a multiplicity of varying implications are provoked. Altruism can be defined as the principle or practice of magnanimous concern for or dedication to the wellbeing and benefit of others. This classification is relatively general and leads to the discussion of many obscure conceptualisations and rationalisations. There are several sub-topics which serve as components to the subject matter of altruism and all its intricacies and opacities.  Ethics and ethical reasoning are noteworthy issues to examine and analyse in relation to the general theme of altruism. Analysing this doctrine from an ethical point of view is vital in determining if the above statement regarding the illusiveness of altruistic acts is factual, even if people may find they uncover somewhat ambiguous results. The psychology of altruism is also a very effective means of developing a deeper and more involved understanding of how it occurs within human psyches and compels them into altruistic behaviour. Sociology is a fundamental aspect of altruism, which is apparent from the definition, as it involves concern and empathy for others. Another definition of the word describes animal behaviour which may be to its disadvantage but benefits others of its kind. This creates comparison between animal and human variations of altruism and whether there is a difference in how the concept applies to them. The opposite of altruism is egoism, the partiality to valuing everything only within the orientation of one's personal interests. It is useful to draw a comparison between each of the two opposing ideologies to establish which is illusive and which is real. Whether countervailing, non-selfish impulses exist is questionable because all individuals possess an overwhelming amount of self interest.

Ethically, altruism is often perceived as a virtue which is genuine, epitomizing human empathy, compassion and selflessness. It claims that ‘an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone except the agent’. However, many believe that this action cannot be selflessly performed by anyone. To question the authenticity of altruism and claim it is not a true component of reality both defies and abides by traditional ethical laws. A human mind generally has the tendency to process information and apply ethical reasoning to this information accordingly. It is a widely accepted notion that the altruistic ideal is ethically correct but, though many may attempt to actualise this moral pinnacle, is as an unattainable asset to have. Altruism is not a requirement in determining what is ethically right or wrong, as humans are actually led to making these moral decisions through their own selfish partialities. Altruism, if in existence, lies only in people intentions, not their ethics or morals, which are frequently created by self-interest.

Altruism is a component of psychology and can be psychologically assessed. An effective means of assessing altruism from a psychological point of view is through analysing Abraham Mallow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’, which was designed for this purpose. Maslow used a pyramidal ladder to classify the five constituents of his theory. The five main constituents which lead to further explanation are human potential, purpose/esteem, belonging, security and, most basically, physical needs. One might assume that the pinnacle of the ladder, human potential, is where altruism can be reached. Self actualisation, development of self and personal creative potential is what characterizes this psychological apex. Self actualisation is the process of realizing one’s own potentialities and was initially introduced by Kurt Goldstein. This could induce altruistic behaviour by creating awareness of others in the awareness and acceptance of oneself. Purpose or esteem is recognised as ‘significant activity’. This means that once one has found a guiding purpose they can constructively perform significant altruistic activity. ‘Unconditional love’ is what creates belonging, the centre of the hierarchy. Unconditional love would be a truly great motivator of altruism, though some believe any acts motivated by this are still motivated by self interest because someone would be hurt if damage were inflicted upon an entity or identity for which they had unconditional love. Security, defined by the ‘sense that needs will be met tomorrow’ is the second most basic drive of the hierarchy of needs. It proves that in order to reach the level needed to be truly altruistic, egoistic drives must be experienced and surpassed. Physical needs, consisting of food, water, clothing and shelter, as the most fundamental of human requirements, are the base of Maslow’s hierarchy, because they must be both fulfilled and emotionally transcended for one to not be hindered by them. Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs is a concise one, giving an explanation of how psychological achievements can be met. However, its links with altruism are vague and indecisive.

Individuals and their relation to society are important factors in the theme of altruism. Altruism is an important sociological object that can be looked for and inspected in societal situations. The word ‘altruism’ was in fact originally coined by August Comte in the first volume of his ‘Système de politique positive’. Comte claimed that ‘the new cerebral science of phrenology proved that altruistic sentiments were innate’. As a sociologist, he also associated altruism closely with sociology. Two other significant pioneers in the field of sociological altruism were Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim. Durkheim made a distinction between egoistic, altruistic and anomic types of suicide when he studied the subject in 1897. Egoistic suicide was the most frequent in Western nations because, according to Durkheim, of the encouragement of individuality. Conversely, altruistic suicide was widespread in primitive communities, who had an especial sense of communal obligation. Sociology is closely related to altruism, as the coinage was invented by a sociologist. It is necessary to study sociology to truly understand the validity of altruism.

Ethology is the zoological study of animal behaviour and instincts. The ethological definition of altruism involves animal conduct which may be to its disadvantage but is advantageous to others of its kind. Genetically programmed behaviours imply that conduct is controlled by survival instincts. This suggests that selfless endeavours carried out by animals are intrinsically programmed by heredity; therefore altruism is instinctive but not identified by the organism as such. Following a hereditary mode of self-sacrificing conduct is very valid proof of the existence of unselfish motives. Animals, unlike humans, are dependant upon their genetic disposition and thus more prone to automatic altruistic deeds. Evolutionary biology greatly contributes to ethology. ‘Complex adaptive systems are learning machines made up of numerous components.’  This quote stresses the adaptiveness of organisms and how they react and adjust to their exterior environment. Selfishness is also hereditary, being necessary for these adaptations and the survival and evolvement of a species. Both altruism and egoism are present within the instincts of an animal and are both an indispensable method of ensuring survival and advancement.

Egoism is the exact opposite of altruism, the theory that regards self-interest as the foundation of morality and the state of one’s own interest being a supreme guiding principle of action, also definable as systematic selfishness. Egoists believe altruistic tendencies in humans don’t exist, so they use egoism to create their own set of ethical laws or abide by traditional laws from an egoistic standpoint. An egoist might take Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to support egoistic claims. They might believe that human potential/self actualisation, purpose/esteem, belonging, security and physical needs are inherently selfish objectives to which to aspire but this belief is ultimately fraudulent. All of these objectives, especially human potential, can lead to and are part of true altruism. To most egoists, all suicides would be classified as egoistic, because their beliefs hinge on the idea that all actions are carried out to benefit oneself in some way.  They would take the collective suicides performed among primitive peoples to have been done because of the individuals’ own wants. Ethology supports egoism in that some of its aspects are based upon survival, which requires a certain degree of selfishness. However, as already mentioned, genetic programming has inherently constructed altruistic motivations within an organism’s psyche. Egoism is a more palpable initiative than altruism and this generally provokes the conception that it exists instead of altruism. This idea is erroneous. Egoism proves that altruism exists through its own existence, as it must have an opposite that subsists and conflicts with it.

Altruism may seem to be a non-existent component of reality when situations involving the theme are examined. However, this is due to the over-analytical nature of humans, which clouds their judgement of this issue. Humans have tried to attain altruism through ethical reasoning, psychological improvement and sociological means. Phrenological and ethological reasoning can deduce that altruism is real through the indication of genetically programmed behaviours, whilst egoism attests that a conflicting principle must subsist with it. Countervailing, non-selfish impulses do exist but are not directly ostensible to the human acuity.

Bibliography:

London-oratory.org. Dwaine Martin. London Oratory. 12 April 2007- www.london-oratory.org/philosophy/philosophies/ETHICS/normative/teleological/body_teleogical.html

Psychology & Altruism. Robin Upton. Altruists International. 3 Feb. 2007- www.altruists.org/ideas/psycho…

Comte and Sociology. Various. Science Encyclopaedia. 3 Feb. 2007- science.jrank.org/pages/8249/A…

Introduction to Ethology (The Zoological Study of Animal Behaviour). Unknown. Bellarmine College. 3 Feb. 2007- cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Eth…

Biology, Evolution and the Global Brain. Howard Bloom. Heise-Online. 4 Feb 2007- www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/2/2…